In patriarchal culture, the woman has long stood as an expression for the “male other.” She is enslaved by an imagined order in which man can experience his fantasies through verbal command by “imposing them on the silent image of the woman still tied to her place as bearer of meaning, not maker of meaning.” Laura Mulvey, a feminist film theorist who famously coined the term “male gaze,” introduces these ideas in her essay Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema. In an androcentric world, women will invariably remain subject to the inclinations of men, their femininity repeatedly marginalized for the sake of centering masculine perspectives. The roots of feminism lie in transcending this structure that has been laid out for women.
Women’s status in America has greatly adjusted and advanced alongside new feminist ideology despite obstacles such as the belittlement and criticism of the immense progress made for women in social, political, and economic domains. Feminism itself has experienced multiple reforms, often having its focus changed to fit the contemporary situation of women. From the suffrage movement, to fights against workplace discrimination, to the protection of reproductive rights and bodily autonomy, to a radical shift from the domestic sphere to positions of considerable political power, America has witnessed a distinct and extensive change in the rights and status of women.
First-wave feminism began in the U.S. in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and soon spread throughout the Western world. It focused on legal issues, primarily the women’s suffrage movement, in a time when women were not encouraged to pursue occupations outside the home, much less have a say in their political landscape.
Second-wave feminism began in the early 1960s, lasting roughly two decades. It aimed to increase equality for women by gaining more than just enfranchisement and focused on issues regarding gender discrimination. The second-wave slogan, “The Personal is Political,” not only identified women’s cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked but also encouraged women to reflect on how their personal lives unknowingly manifested and furthered sexist power structures.
The Supreme Court’s 1973 Roe v. Wade decision was a remarkable milestone in American history regarding women’s reproductive health and bodily autonomy. They ruled 7-2 in favor of Jane Roe, stating that the 14th Amendment’s guarantee of due process inherently included a fundamental “right to privacy” that protected a pregnant woman’s choice of whether to have an abortion. In this case, the Texas law being challenged — one that broadly prohibited abortion within the state without respect to the stage of pregnancy or other interests — was found to have violated this right. Many believed women’s existence as the means of reproduction was the fundamental reason for their lack of social capital. By legalizing abortion in Roe v. Wade, women were empowered to overcome their previously inferior positions.
The transition between the second and third-wave was characterized by radical shifts in career opportunities for women, from the domestic to the working sphere. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, influenced by the postmodernist movement, third-wave feminists redefined ideas involving femininity, gender, and sexuality. The third-wave reached a global audience through digital platforms like blogs and broadened its goals to include women with diverse racial and cultural backgrounds, building a more inclusive feminism focused on achieving gender equality on a larger scale.
However, while there were significant economic, political, and social advances for women during this time, they were still far from enjoying gender equality in America. Women continued to earn markedly less than men for comparable work, were gravely underrepresented in political office, and made up a disproportionate share of people in poverty. Progress was slow.
These matters are primarily covered in fourth-wave feminism, which began around 2012. Centered on intersectionality, the fourth wave examines the systems of power that contribute to the stratification of marginalized groups. The fourth-wave champions greater representation of traditionally underrepresented groups in politics, arguing that society would be more just if a variety of perspectives were incorporated into policy decisions. While earlier feminists fought for and earned women greater liberation, individualism, and social mobility, the fourth wave furthered the agenda by calling for justice against assault and harassment, for equal pay for equal work, and for bodily autonomy, harkening back to the 1973 Roe v. Wade decision and its growth and impact since then.
In the modern era, advancements in communications technology and increasing global interconnectedness have significantly furthered the feminist agenda. Now, feminists often use print, news, and social media to collaborate and mobilize, speak against abuses of power, and provide opportunities for girls and women. And in addition to advocating for women, fourth-wave feminists believe men should be provided more opportunities to express their emotions freely, present themselves as they please, and be engaged and committed parents to their children.
Contrary to the belief that women have not experienced political progress since gaining enfranchisement in the first-wave, many political milestones in the early 21st century, such as Nancy Pelosi’s election as House Democratic Whip in 2001 and Hillary Clinton’s presidential run in 2016, have shown that women have experienced remarkable growth in the political sphere and will continue to do so.
Culturally, the widespread acceptance of feminism in American pop culture and its increasing presence in the everyday lives of American women are a testament to its ability to evolve alongside changing times. The incendiary reactions modern feminism has provoked in those who adhere to androcentric worldviews call attention to the reality that the third- and fourth-waves present revolutionarily progressive concepts that are not mere revivals of earlier waves of feminism.
Though it is clear how far we have come, there is still much progress to be made. In 2020, women in America earned 82 cents for every dollar earned by men. Women make up less than 27% of Congress. One in six women in America are victims of sexual assault. Our communities cannot progress without the perspectives and contributions of women. In the face of these challenges, we must remain hopeful. Gloria Jean Watkins said it best: “What we cannot imagine cannot come into being.”
Image by Lindsey LaMont is licensed under the Unsplash License.
